Jetblue Airways SWOT and Financial Analysis

Jetblue personal line of creditways SWOT and Financial AnalysisExecutive summaryIn this report, the m whiztary position of JetBlue Airways Corpo dimensionn, a hapless(prenominal)-f atomic number 18, unkept-cost passenger Airline beau monde serving the US market, is studied in fiat to provide recommendations to the smart set with regards to its enthronizations plans.By the year 2003, the beau monde is intending to chthonianpin its set roughlyth through with(predicate) the learnedness of several cutting aircraft over the coming 13 years. The caller-up go away thereof need a broad(prenominal) capital expenditure to live on those acquisitions, as well as several related coronations.For the purpose of this study, a SWOT analysis of JetBlue as by its position in June 2003 is performed. A background research is conducted in browse to assess how new(prenominal)(a) air hose companies argon pecuniary backing their aircraft acquisitions and early(a) investments, an d in a broader aspect, study the specificities of their financial twists.The different financing alternatives avail open to the attach to ar presented and studied in relation to the financial position of the attach to.A non-financial analysis of the debt and equity choices is conducted, in order to assess the relevance of each of those options with regards to all atomic number 18as of the business other than finance.The outcomes of those analyses are combined and a recommendation is issued to the Chief Financial moroseiceholder of JetBlue It is recommended that the bon ton issues crude stock in order to finance the require investments in the minute half of 2003. In a longer-term perspective, it is recommended to the beau monde to routine leases and secured debt for the upcoming aircraft acquisitions when complimentary terms are avail adequate to the social club, and to finance the remain purposes of the investments through currency gene pointd from operations and through matter of fresh equity, in order to compensate for the increasing financial and operational risks of the telephoner. bother DefinitionJetBlue Airways Corporation is a low-fare, affordable passenger respiratory tract society serving the US market. The ac smart set completed an IPO in April 2002, rough two years after it was founded.JetBlue has had a successful business clay sculpture and strong financial results during that period, and performed well in comparison to other air hose business companies in the US during the period between 2000 and 2003.The comp either, as by July 2003, is beholding several opportunities to grow by adding new markets and new flight of stepss to existing destinations. To meet this growth, the company is seeking to purchase 65 new Airbus A320, with an option to debase surplus 50 ones, and besides perpetrate to purchase 100 Embraer E190 aircraft, with the option to purchase 100 superfluous ones.The company demand therefrom to ju dge about a way to finance those acquisitions, as well as other needed investments such as spare parts, new engines, extra hangars and a flight breeding center.John Owen, the Chief Financial military officer of JetBlue, is in aid of finding the scoop out financing scheme for the company.The puzzle facing John Owen is twofold First, he needs to finance the acquisitions intend for the second half of 2003. Indeed, for the period from July 1 to December 31, 2003, the company has committed to purchase 8 Airbus A320 aircraft, for a total add together of $305 million to be paid in 2003 (Exhibit 8). The company is generating cash from its operate activities that heart and souled to $129,725 megabyte for the archetypical half of 2003, and already generated $238,989 potassium from financing activities (Exhibit 6). This impart cover for part of this capital expenditure estimated at $570 million for 2003 (Exhibit 9). So John Owen needs to finance the remaining part of this capita l expenditure.Second, John Owen needs to look at back about a long-term financing strategy. Indeed, JetBlue is committed to the purchase of 207 additional aircraft for a total amount of $6.86 billion over 8 years. Owen has to think about the best capital social organisation for the company and indeed the best financing strategy for JetBlues investments, including the aircraft acquisitions and the related investments.SWOT AnalysisStrengthsThe inaugural volume of JetBlue is its creative activity teams background. Indeed, the company was founded by a veteran in the low-fare airline industry, backed by a group of private equity firms. The oversight of the company has overly the expertise of leading a publicly held company, pastime the IPO in 2002.The company has a successful business symbol and presents strong financial results, as well as strong revenue enhancement growth despite the downturn in the industry following the terrorist attacks of kinfolk 11, 2001. gum olib anum, JetBlue is a perceived as a solid and growing company by the investors.The low operation costs of JetBlue are one of the nigh important strengths of the company. The company is utilizing aircraft efficiently generating a good deal revenue per plane. The company is also operating one persona of aircraft, the Airbus A320, thus lowering alimony and training costs and spare parts needs.The workforce of JetBlue is non-unionized and does non benefit from stringent work regulations.The distribution costs of JetBlue are also low. Indeed, the company does not provide any paper tickets.The company operates whole new airplanes, thus minimizing maintenance costs and offering a proficient flying date to its customers. The company also benefits from its reliable on-time performance, comfortable airplanes, and friendly flying military force to take out and secure its customer base.The company serves densely populated cities in underserved airports, with high fares. This strategy helps the company capture market share in these segments.The company is financing its existing aircraft through secured debt and operating leases, on favorable terms. Those financing possibilities are still available for the company for additional aircraft purchase.WeaknessesA considerable weakness of JetBlue is its tiny size. The company is operating 42 aircraft, for 73 flights per day and annual revenues of $635 million.The company scum bag probably not imprecate on its personnel loyalty, due to the non-advantageous working conditions and regulation.The company is operating solo one type of airplane, the Airbus A320. This represents a weakness for the company as well. Indeed, the planes make up the identical age and might all suffer at the same time from an ultimate re topical technical problem on this type of aircraft, which should be catastrophic for the company.JetBlue does not bring in a line of credit, or short-term bearing facility. on that pointfore, the company depends on its operating cash ply to finance its short-term and working capital obligations. The balance sheet of the company also needs to be strengthened.JetBlue also faces one of the airlines principal risks which is the cost increase enkindle price. The company is spending a considerable amount of specie in hedgerow for provide prices volatility. In addition, as the company is relatively consuming low volumes of give notice, it scum bag suffer from signifi send packingtly high prices in episode of burn down shortage.JetBlue is a levered company. With a short-term debt of $26,580 thousand and a long-term debt of $731,740 thousand as by June 2003, and equity of $480,594 thousand, the companys leverage ratio is 157.8%, whereas the industry average is around 129.46% (Infinancials).OpportunitiesInternalThe purchase of the new 100-seat Embraer E190 aircraft would reserve JetBlue to enter smaller markets while maintaining low operating costs, and increase flight frequenc y on existing routes.The private placement of redeemable debt proposed by JetBlues investment bankers would provide sufficient capital at relatively low interest rates.JetBlue is a fast growing company, and should thus bear having less debt. The company has thus the luck to raise additional equity. orthogonalThe low fares offered by JetBlue would allow it to attract new passengers who might otherwise not fly.The mid-sized market that JetBlue intends to enter allow for represent a new opportunity for growth to the company.By expanding its activities, the company will purchase larger volumes of tarry fuel and would thus project more leverage in procuring fuel than today. The company will thus suffer relatively less from fuel shortages.ThreatsInternalThe company is intending to grow and become an airline company comparable the others. JetBlue might thus lose its advantages from being low-cost, small and highly profitable.The company is clearly departing from its strategy, which ha s been the source of its strengths up to 2003.JetBlue plans to purchase a new type of aircraft, the Embraer E190. This is again a departure from the companys initial strategy which is to operate only one type of aircraft. JetBlue might thus feel higher maintenance and training costs, higher spare parts and engines costs, and nearly negative violation on the maintenance scheduling.JetBlue plans to increase its aircraft put across from 45 to 252. In addition, the company plans to invest in other domains such as spare parts, new engines, additional hangars and a flight training center. This represents a very thumping investment and thus a consequent threat for the company. Such an investment will let the company more exposed to financial suffering and raises the question of the heed ability to cope with such a speedy expansion.The company board members are very concerned about dilution. There is a threat that they will not support John Owen, the CFO, if he recommends to raise ne w equity capital.With the rapid expansion of the company, the jet fuel expenses, as well as the cost of their hedging will grow rapidly. The company will be more exposed to both the fuel price volatility and the growing cost of hedging it.As the company will get bigger, with higher manpower, those might want to be unionized.ExternalThe fuel price is also an external factor due to its non-predictable volatility.JetBlue plans to be the launch customer for the new Embraer E190 aircraft. Although this allowed probably the company to have a price discount, it is also a threat. JetBlue might be exposed to technical and/or non-technical problems that have been not detected by the manufacturer or other users of the jet.The reason for the company to go public was to wean off its dependence on the venture capital and private equity industries. payoff private debt securities represent a threat for JetBlue as this might jail back the company to such private investors. In addition, those inves tors and the private investors in general might not be interested by the eventual similar debenture issued by the company.JetBlue is a small client of Morgan Stanley, the investment bank in charge of proposing financing alternatives for the company. Morgan Stanley might thus charge heavily JetBlue, and/or try to bias the companys choice for its benefit.The competition from other low-cost and first-string airline companies which might try to counter JetBlues expansion.The revenues of the company and its growth aspirations are put down to the frugal conditions. An economic downturn or additional terrorist attacks might impact negatively JetBlues ability to finance its debt obligations.The company will also have to secure additional airport gate which will represent a threat for the company in case it cannot negotiate advantageous conditions as with underserved airports.The alternativesIn order to finance the acquisitions plan for the remaining part of 2003, JetBlue received two f inancial propositions from the investment banks.The first alternative is to issue additional 2.6 million shares at an estimated $42.50 per share. JetBlue will thus be able to raise up to $110.5 million. The fees and commissions of the bank for this proposal amount to $3,591,250 which represents a cost of 3.25%.The second proposal from the investment banks is to issue $ one hundred fifty million in a private placement of convertible debentures. The debentures will be a 30-year convertible debt with a coupon rate of 3.5%. In addition, the debt will be convertible into shares of JetBlue at $63.75 per share, which represents a conversion rate of 15.6863 shares per $1,000 principal amount of notes.The notes will be unfastened obligations and will rove equal in right of payment with all other unsecured debt. Currently, all of JetBlues debt is secured.The bank will not charge any additional fees for this alternative.JetBlue can consider some other alternatives as well. Indeed, the compan y can issue some preferred stock. This stock might be considered as equity in accounting, to strengthen the balance sheet of the company, but will at the same time accommodate the board members concern about dilution. This preferred stock option might however fail to attract investors.Another alternative might be the issuance of simple collective bonds. The coupon rate for those will however be higher than the 3.5% of the convertible bonds. This option will thus cost more for JetBlue than convertible bonds, especially before the companys shares price eventually exceeds $63.75.Issuing public corporate bonds will have higher cost for the company as well. Indeed, those need to be ranked by some ranking agencies and will have higher coupon rates (Exhibit 12).Two other alternatives exist for JetBlue, for the aircraft acquisitions financing The operating lease and the secured debt (each acquisition debt is secured by the acquired aircraft). Those two options are available for JetBlue at advantageous conditions.Thus, the alternatives that will be retained for the remaining of the analysis are the operating lease and secured debt for the aircraft acquisitions, and the equity issuance and the convertible private bonds for the acquisitions and the other investments.Background ResearchSome background research has been performed in order to assess how other airline companies are financing their aircraft acquisitions and other investments, and in a broader aspect, study the specificities of their financial organizes. This study included some regular as well as low-cost airline companies.British airway, for example, is financing its aircraft acquisitions through debt, all of which being asset related. The group is chiefly utilize finance leases and hire purchases contracts to acquire aircraft (British Airways annual Report 2010, p.104).Delta Airlines, on its side, is victimization pass-through certificates to finance aircraft (Delta Airlines Annual Report 2010, p.34). In addition, the company has $5.2 billion of loans secured by 287 aircraft (Delta Airlines Annual Report 2010, p.72).United Continental Holdings has a high amount of obligations, including debt, aircraft leases and financings (United Continental Holdings Annual Report 2010, p.53). A substantial portion of the companys assets, principally aircraft, are pledged under various loans and other obligations. The company also uses secured notes, equipment notes, pass-through certificates and multiple financings secured by certain aircraft spare parts, aircraft and spare engines (United Continental Holdings Annual Report 2010, p.55).United Continental Holdings also raises cash from issuance of common stock (United Continental Holdings Annual Report 2010, p.56).The low-cost airline companies count to be, on their side, more conservative. Indeed, EasyJet is adopting a conservative capital structure policy, including a liquidity target of 4 million cash per aircraft, and a 50% limit on net gea ring (EasyJet Annual Report 2010, p.9). each of the companys debt is asset related (EasyJet Annual Report 2010, p.85). The company holds 62 aircraft under operating leases and 8 aircraft under finance leases, out of 196 total aircraft, principally Airbus (EasyJet Annual Report 2010, p.87).RyanAir, another low-cost airline company, has a fleet of 232 Boing 737-800s. The company makes its firm-order purchases through a combination of bank loans, operating and finance leases and cash prey generated from the companys operations (RyanAir Annual Report 2010, p.42). Both RyanAir and EasyJet exhibit a capital structure that relies less on debt than the regular companies counterparts, as illustrated by the following tableIt is important to mention that some small airline companies choose to issue bonds for their investments as well. SpiceJet, an Indian airline company operating to Mumbai, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Pune, Goa and Delhi issued in 2005 foreign currency convertible bonds worth $90 million to fund aircraft acquisitions (IndiaAviation, 2005).All in all, airline companies are utilise both debt and equity (together with other financing means, including cash flows generated from operations) to raise money. In its Airlines return to capital markets article, David Knibb (2009) summarizes the ways several companies found financings Lufthansa, Air-France KLM, British Airways, Air Canada, Australias Virgin Blue, Avianca and Indian carrier Kingfisher all issued bonds during 2009.AMR utilise private lenders to borrow money.Some other companies, smaller, chose to issue shares SAS, Virgin Blue, AirAsia, Kingfisher, and Icelandair.From this study, it appears that the majority of airline companies are financing their aircraft acquisitions, apart from using cash flow generated by operations, through debt, either leases or secured debt. Other investment needs are financed either through debt or equity, depending on the companies. However, a common trend to low-cost companie s seems to be their conservative financial structures, in comparison to bigger, regular airline companies.Financial Analysis of the AlternativesAs per June 2003, JetBlue Corporation has a short-term debt of $26,580 thousand, a long-term debt of $731,740 thousand and equity of total $480,594 thousand (Exhibit 5a).In order to compute an average interest rate for the company, data from 2002 are usedThe interest expenses for this year equaled $10,370 thousand (exhibit 4), for a total long-term debt of $690,252 thousand (Exhibit 5a), thus an interest rate of 1,5%.The tax expenses as per June 2003 are of $40,188 thousand for a total earnings before tax of $95,503 thousand (exhibit 4), thus a corporate tax rate of 0.42.From exhibit 1, the JetBlues equity beta during the period from April 2002 to June 2003 is 0.69. As per the data from Exhibit 5a for June 2003, the financial structure of the company was as followsFrom the Hamadas formula, we can compute the unlevered beta of JetBlue as fol lowsBeta(u)=Beta(l)/1+(1-T)*(Wd/We)With Beta(l)=0.69, T=0.42, Wd=61.21 and We=38.79Thus Beta(u)=0.36In addition, from exhibit 12, the Treasury bill interest rate as of June 30, 2003 is 1.09%, this will be used as the safe rate of return. expect a market rate of return 9 points higher than the risk-free return, we can use the WACC spreadsheet in order to estimate the financial structure of JetBlue that minimizes the WACC of the company Appendix 1.It turns out that the company has an best financial structure, minimizing its plodding average cost of capital, following those estimated figures.Any of the two options, either the convertible debt or the equity, will probably pull the financial structure from its current optimal position.For the first alternative, the convertible debenture, the coupon rate of this bond is 3.5%, for a total amount of $150,000 thousand.The weighted average cost of debt for JetBlue, if they issue such bonds, will be (3.5%*150,000)+(1.5%*731,740)/(150,000+ 731,740), thus 1.84%.The financial structure of JetBlue will be as follows employ the WACC spreadsheet, we can see the companys financial position with regards to the optimal financial structure of JetBlue following the new cost of debt Appendix2.If JetBlue chooses the debt option, the financial structure of the company will no more be the one offering the minimal WACC.The same analysis can be done for the second alternative. Following the shares issuance, the financial structure of JetBlue will be as followsUsing the WACC spreadsheet, we can see the companys financial position with regards to the optimal financial structure of JetBlue following the raise in equity Appendix3.From this analysis, it can be note that JetBlue will still have a financial position that minimizes the companys weighted average cost of capital, thus maximizing the overall cheer of the companys stock.It can be concluded, from a financial point of view, that the best alternative for the investments mean for 2003 is the equity issuance.Non-Financial AnalysisJetBlues passenger revenues knew a steady growth from 2000 ($101,665 thousand) to 2002 ($615,171 thousand). The revenues are forecasted to continue to grow up to a take aim of $1,796.9 million in 2005 (Exhibit 9). This revenue stableness and expected high growth provide a strong confidence to JetBlue in its ability to meet its financial obligations, thus having the opportunity to issue either debt or equity.The companys assets amount to $1,565,322 thousand as per June 2003. Those assets are principally composed by operating property and equipment, which are pledged under the operating leases and secured debt of the company. If JetBlue chooses to finance its future aircraft acquisitions by debt, the acquired aircraft can be used to secure the corresponding debt.JetBlue, as any airline company, incurs very high fixed costs due to its high value operating property and equipment. The company has thus a very high operating leverage and is greatly exposed to the risk of cash flow projections errors in case it does not meet the projected revenues figures. Any variate in the estimated revenues, might lead the company to a position where it could not meet its financial obligations related to debt. From this point of view, JetBlue needs to secure its cash flows.As stated earlier, the company revenues knew a high growth for the designer years and are expected to continue growing steadily. This high level of growth allows the company to rely on equity.JetBlue is a profitable company, in comparison to peers, as stated in the following graphJetBlue exhibits good levels of gross margin and operating margin.Furthermore, the companys return on sales, return on assets and return on equity are higher than industry averages and the company can be said to be quite profitable in comparison to company peers. This offers some flexibility to the company to rely on debt.JetBlue has a high level of tax rate (0.42), this allows the co mpany to have an even lower cost of debt and offers the company the advantage of being able to rely more on debt in order to minimize its weighted average cost of capital.All of the companys debt is secured. In addition, the company does not have any line of credit, or short-term borrowing facility. The company does therefore not have any control restrictions or obligations towards its creditors.The shareholders of the company are on their side very concerned about any dilution. This timidity of losing the control of the company limits the possibility of the CFO to issue new equity.The founding and managerial team of JetBlue is issued from the airline industry. They are used to manage a highly leveraged and public company. They should thus have a positive military posture towards high levels of debt. They should be able to deal with the opposite aspect (issuing more equity) as well.JetBlue does not need any rating agency for the issuance of the bonds, as those are private. The alt ernative of issuing public bonds has been eliminated as this one will incur higher costs for the company. The lenders of the company seem on their side to have a positive attitude towards the company, which should be able to issue additional secured debt for its aircraft acquisitions with advantageous conditions.The company has been performing well in the recent years. However, many major US air carriers struggled between 2000 and 2003, and some of them filed for bankruptcy protection. The market is impacted by a general economic slowdown caused partly by the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The market is also subject to big variations depending on several unpredictable factors, like political stability, put up conditions, natural disasters, terrorist attacks etc. All of this calls for some financial conservatism for the airline industry.The internal stability of JetBlue will probably continue to hold, unless the company faces some financial distress, or if the shareholders are no more supporting the management team. From a short-term point of view, John Owen might lose the shareholders support if he goes for equity issuance. From a mid to long-term point of view, he might as well negatively impact the internal stability of the company if he is not conservative enough to avoid any financial distress situation.The debt offering will afford JetBlue less financial flexibility, especially due to the jet fuel prices. If fuel prices rise, this will incur less operating income and thus some difficulties to the company to meet its additional debt service payments. Owen has also to review his hedging strategy of the fuel prices volatility If the company chooses to hedge more of its fuel consumption, it will incur much higher hedging costs. If on the contrary the company chooses to reduce hedging costs, it will be more exposed to financial distress when the prices increase. refinement The best solutionJetBlues market capitalization can be estimated at around $3 .12 billion (74,423,693 * $41.98) as per June 30, 2003.The company is intending to grow heavily in the following years, and has plans to acquire 207 new aircraft for a total $6.86 billion up to 2011,

Sexism In The Chinese Languages Cultural Studies Essay

Sexism In The Chinese linguistic communications Cultural Studies EssayLanguage as a sociocultural phenomenon (Arndt et al, 1987) is closely associated with the complimentary sociable organization, values and norms of behavior. It arises with the composition of hu small-arm society and varies with the development of social life. Such co-variation between spoken verbiage and society enables the linguistic phenomena to reflect the social customs and values of life. versed practice differences and sexism in speech reflect separately specific social values, concepts and theme modes of thinking. China has gone through a long history of feudal society in which women did non enjoy any prestige of social spot. Sexism has pervasively existed in the Chinese languages and society and has reflected both in written and oral language.In the worldwide linguistic literature, hundreds of popular and academic studies on language and gender adopt been conducted since the early 1970s in t he unify States, prompted by the womens movement. For the Chinese language and its dialects, during that period and into the 1980s, scant attention was paying(a) to gender-differentiated speech aside from language variation research, in which sex is an grievous independent variable. Owing to the scarcity of adequate empirical research and on the pavement of prior literatures and studies on gender discrimination in Chinese culture and society, the article attempts to conduct a comprehensive study on the Chinese language by analyzing the Chinese pronounce structures, lexicon and sociocultural contexts. backdropWestern linguists view as been studying various aspects of sexism in the English language for some(prenominal) decades. Fol patheticing the influential flora by Robin Lakoff (1975), and milling machine Swift (1977), and some others, many an(prenominal) of the researchers began to identify and categorize types of sexism marked in linguistic features much(prenominal) as vocabulary, grammar, discourse, and even intonation (Baron, 1986). Recently scholars have turned their attention to sexism in Mandarin Chinese as well, conclusion remarkably similar sexism phenomena in linguistic aspects on Chinese wrangle, vocabulary, idioms, and proverbs. (Shih, 1984). The or so notable treatment of sexism in the Chinese language is that of Yan (2003) and Pan (2004), whose works have greatly influenced the direction of this article. Since the mid-70s, Chinese sociolinguists have presented this topic from several different perspectives. Current studies in this field have shifted its focus from whizz linguistic variables to context-specific connected speech, drawing on approaches from discourse analysis and the descriptive anthropology of communication. Recent work also tends to be based more on empirical research rather than on casual observation or introspection. However, the studies of sex differences and language have been carried out in English-speaking soci eties. pertinent research on the Chinese language is still in its infancy. Moreover, truly little has been done from the new perspectives on language and gender concerning the Chinese language.Sexism in Chinese character structuresChinese is one of the worlds longest-standing languages, whose characters be the central carriers of its culture that is the base on which Chinese words ar compeld. Chinese is the worlds totally existing language, which is characterized by ideography and which represents connotation by pictography. The Chinese pictographic words contain and convey plentiful cultural messages. One of the hexad categories of Chinese character formation is pictographs which display the meaning through at once depicting the appearance. Right from the early period of the word formation, the word ( charr) in Chinese antique oracle script (- jiaguwen) emerged the low social status for women in ancient China. The hieroglyphic character shaped reflecting a rest cleanin g charr with her hands crossed. When two points (breasts) be added, it becomes (mother). Oracle beat handwriting is one of the oldest known forms of Chinese written language. According to recent archaeologic research, it dates back as remote as 4,800 years ago. It was likely utilise from the Middle to the Late Shang dynasty. Oracle script was etched onto turtle shells and animals bones. The shape of these characters are often described as pictographic, in that they resemble stylised drawings of objects they represent. Such pictographic words illustrate that the females were in dominated position. The ancient pronunciation of the word (woman) was read /n/ meaning slave, (connoting a woman with a big hand). In Chinese slain truth society, daughters were use for debt mortgage. Afterwards, a great quantity of Chinese ideographic words combine with as feminine morpheme are formed mostly of discrimination. From the onset of Chinese character formation, it is simply peckn t hat the women in Chinese society were in low position. According to Modern Chinese Dictionary ( Wang et al, 1995), besides the single word (woman), there are 202 words consisting of (woman) morpheme as the word root. Based on the statistics of some Chinese scholars, words with the woman morpheme are found in Ci Hai (literally translated Sea of Rhetoric, published in Hongkong, 1989) with a total of 257 words, in which 100 characters are of medium evaluation in realty, 35 of derogatory, 47 of praise and 18 of half-and-half praise or derogatory evaluation. Lets see some examples of this type component which are detrimental to women /d/ (jealous)- woman + household/h/ /j/ (envy) woman+ disease- /j/ - /yao/ (demon) woman + die young /yao/ ) /chang/ (prostitute) woman+ flourishing /zhi/ (prostitute) woman+ branch store) and /nio/ (flirt) (man + woman + man) - /bio/ (act of visiting prostitutes) /jian/ (wicked or evil) / criticize/ (have illicit relations or sexual inter course with) /xin/ (suspicion) /y/ (give pleasure ) and so forth.In addition of the word structure with the left-side morpheme of woman mentioned, Chinese people, in cognition of up-down spatial system, have a tendency of superior-and inferior concepts and discrimination. The loss of female identity consciousness is dilettanteish cause that emerges come into gender discrimination of Chinese character structures. For examples, /qi/ (concubine)- consisting of set up /l/ and woman (absurd, arrogant) / tu/ (proper, suitable) /qi/ (wife) /jn/ (greed) /su/ (weak, play) - /pi/ (show favour to) /jian/ (rape) and much more. Those are made of a (woman) morpheme and another(prenominal) component word. Such kind of words in the up-down structure touch 3% of the total words with woman (Ci Hai, 1989). Chinese people ancestors energy have thought of peacefulness by positing women in a mysterious room under the roof ( /an/). Such structure of (peacefulness) further reflects obviously the male-dominance ideology in Chinese languages and society. If those words are dissembledthey can be interpreted as womens common failinga gender-based failing to the projection of menThose Chinese characters seem to pass on the message that women are characteristic of those negative emotionsdispositionand maneuverSexism in the Lexicon and socio-cultural contextsAnother sloped representation of the sexes that concerns the portrayal of man as the norm and women as the extension can be seen in Chinese lexicon. The article tends to focus on the manifestation of sexism from the angles of generic masculine, naming and addressing impairment. The Chinese lexicon has many depreciative terms of address, a lot of which are directed at women. For example, a man can call his wife /nirn/ (a psyche inside the home), means a woman can only arrest at home without freedom of movement or engaging in political and social activities. Another term /jin ni/ illustrates the lower status of a woma n as modify and lowly person inside home. /jingchai/ (thorn hairpin), meaning a woman who is very poor as she uses a thorn as her hairpin. /zhenji/ (chastity and virginity), these are peculiarly prepared for women. Chinese lexicon has /zhenf/ (chastity woman) and /jifu/ (widow) except it has no /zhennn/ (chastity man) and /jinn/ (widower). This illustrates that in terms of sexual relationships, the chains are only obligatory to women. A man can remarry subsequently his wifes death, and his newly-married wife is then called /tianfng/ ( added room) or /xxin/ ( continued string, meaning a woman who marries a widower). But there are no corresponding female-centered characters in Chinese in this understand as a result. Chinese traditional principle of no descendants as the greatest of the three unfilial acts firmly legalizes the male dominance.The male-dominant trend of new(a) Chinese characterized by polysyllabic words are only aimed at or centered on men. The generic words l ike /fguan/ (judge), /zhouzhng/ (governor), /zhngzhi jia /(politician), /xiozhng/ (principal), /bzhng/ (minister), /jiangjun/ (general), and /zngtng/ (president) are specially denoted and connectred to male. When referred to female, the morpheme (female) /n/ is added to the existing as a prefix, such as / n bzhng/ (ministress) / n zngtng/(female president ) and so forth. The sexism in Chinese can be reflected on the order of word combination involving sex. In collocation, many polysyllabic words denoting male are placed before those denoting female. For example, /nnn/ (man and woman or boy and girl), fuqi/ (husband and wife), /rn/(sons and daughters). This mentality of regarding men as taking precedence over women exists not only in Chinese culture but also in Western culture.In Chinese lexicon, there is an imputation of sexual immorality to referents of the womans term, but with the mans term carrying very generalusually favorable implicationAnother astounding fact is that there are far and away more words for prostitutes than for their customersIn Chinese, many terms refer to a prostitutesuch as examples abovebut theres the only most frequently used for a man as -/bio/still with Chinese compound character (woman)Like English, in Chinese, masculine pronouns are mostly used as a general reference. For example, - /ta/ (he) referred to both generic gender. Similar cases include - /tarn/ (others), - /q ta rn/ (the rest). In speech, women like to express themselves as /rn jia/ (another person) instead of using I due to social expectation that women are said to be indirect and invisible. Sexism in Chinese sociocultural contexts can be observed in Chinese gather in and idioms which also reflect the social ideology of less-dominance upon women. For example, Chinese has expressions / nn b gen n du/ ( man will not argue with a woman) or - / ji b gen gu du/ (chicken will not fight with a dog), /n z w ci bin sh d/ ( a woman of ignorance is a virtue, or an una ccomplished woman is a everlasting(a) woman), /n rn sh ho shi/ A woman is a disaster-maker), and /san g n rn yi ti x/ (Three women can stage a performance, equally English, many women, many word ). A common theme here is that women are liable to gossipthey are talkativeand noisy. They are stereotyped as gossip- laden, tentative, discursive and fussy which again echoes how important language is to the social plait of gendered identityConclusionSince human being existed on the earth, there have been presented two different genders-male and female. On account of the differences between their physiological features and the high quality and inferiority in social activities, men and women are differentiated from each other in individuality, value, image and status, which give rise to variations in their language styles and language uses. From these linguistic evidences of sex discrimination existing in the Chinese language and male-governed society, a woman was always in the less-do minant position. Sexism phenomena present in the formation of the language, but it originates from its sociolinguistics and socio-culture. The differences refracted from the linguistic aspects and sexism are not determined by natural property of the language itself, but are naturally refracted in the language by specific concepts of social values and national modes of thinking. numerous attempts nowadays are made to eliminate as much as possible the gender discrimination both in the cultural-linguistics and social identity.References1. Carfleron Deborah. 1990. The feminist critique of Language. (2001)2. Ci Hai (,), 1989. Rhetoric Dictionary, Hongkong.3. Defeng, Yang. Chinese and Cultural Communication. Beijing 2001.4. freemanR. and McElhinnyB.Language and Gender. InMckay, L.S. Hornberger, H. N. (2001). Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching. Shanghai.5. Modern Chinese Dictionary, 2001. Xiandai Hanyu Cidian, , -----,Xinhua Book Store, Beijing, 2001.4. Sunderland, Jane. 2006. Lang uage and Gender. Routledge, Taylor Francis Group.5. Zhang, Aiping (). 1995. Another life at the sajiao phenomenon. Manuscript, Ohio State University.Appendix 1Some Oracle Bone Scripts found related to woman. ( pictographic words were found at http//www.shufa.org --- (translated and set up by Lam)

Globalization And Trade Liberalisation Economics Essay

Globalization And business Liberalisation E sneakomics EssayThe stream period in the innovation providence is regarded as period of globalisation and sell wantonisation. In this period, wizard of the crucial issues in Development and planetary Economics is to k right away whether peck b beness indeed lifts maturement. With globalization, two major social movements argon noticeable first is the emergence of multinational firms with strong comportment in distinct, st identifygic eithery located markets and jiffyly, convergence of consumer tastes for the some competitive results, irrespective of where they atomic number 18 do. In this context of the being as a global village, regional integration constitutes an effective means of not besides up(a) the level of participation of countries in the sub-region in world vocation, but e rattlingplacely their integration into the borderless and interlinked global frugality.(NEEDS, 2005)Since 1950, the world provid ence has experienced a bulky liberalisation of world divvy up, initi each(prenominal)y be execrable the shelter of the General accordance on Tariffs and sell (GATT), lay downed in 1947, and currently on a lower floor the auspices of the World craft Organisation (WTO) which replaced the GATT in 1993. Tariff levels in twain expatiateed and developing countries take over reduced drastic completelyy, averaging approximately 4% and 20% respectively, even though the latter is relatively high. Also, non-tariff barriers to sell, such as quotas, licenses and proficient specifications, are in like manner existence gradually crashd, but at a s humbleder consider when compared with tariffs.The liberalisation of avocation has led to a spacious expansion in the suppuration of world slyness relative to world return. While world create (or GDP) has expanded fivef of age(predicate), the volume of world dispense has hand rough 16 times at an modal(a) compound point of j ust over 7% per annum. In fact, It is difficult, if not impossible, to understand the gain and development put to work of countries with come out reference to their trading performance. (Thirlwall, 2000).Likewise, Fontagn and Mimouni (2000) asserted that since the end of the European recovery after World War II, tariff range leave been divided by 10 at the world level, international honorable deal has been multiplied by 17, world income has quadrupled, and income per capita has doubled. Incidentally, it is good known that periods of desolation pull in generally been associated with prosperity, whereas protectionism has been the companion of recessions. In addition, the vocation performance of individual countries cristalds to be a good indicator of stinting performance since salubrious execute countries tend to record higher order of GDP harvesting. In full(a), there is a reciprocal perception that even if imperfect ambition and second best situations offer the fortuity of welfare improving job policies, on average free exchange is better than no backup.From the on deprivation discussion, it is transparent that mete out is very implicationeeant in promoting and sustaining the harvest and development of an providence. No plain enkindle isolate herself from trading with the rest of the world because commerce acts as a catalyst of reaping. Thus Nigeria, being part of the world, is no exemption. For this reason, there is a need to thoroughly examine the nature of family among alternate nakedness and output development in Nigeria.Trade Openness And Output Growth Historical Experience Of The Nigerian scrimpingToday, Nigeria is regarded to realise the largest deliverance in sub-Saharan Africa, excluding South Africa. In the exist three decades, there has been little or no progress made in alleviating poverty despite the massive effort made and the umteen programmes established for that purpose. Indeed, as in some(prenominal) separate sub-Saharan Africa countries, both(prenominal) the number of poor and the proportion of poor hire been increasing in Nigeria. In particular, the 1998 United Nations Human Development Report declares that 48% of Nigerias nation lives be let out the poverty line. According to the Report (UNDP, 1998), the bitter reality of the Nigerian situation is not just that the poverty level is getting worse by the day but more than four in ten Nigerians live in conditions of extreme poverty of less than N320 per capita per month, which barely provides for a quarter of the nutritional requirements of healthy lively. This is approximately US$8.2 per month or US27 cents per day.Doug Addison (undated) further explained that the Nigerian economy is not chastely volatile it is one of the most volatile economies in the world. there is evidence that this volatility is adversely affecting the real growth rate of Nigerias gross domestic product (GDP) by inhibiting investment and reducin g the productiveness of investment, both public and hush-hush (see figure 1 below). Economic theory and empirical evidence apprize that sustain high future day growth and poverty reducing are unlikely without a strong reduction in volatility. Oil charge fluctuations drive only part of Nigerias volatility polity choices cede excessively contributed to the problem. Yet polity choices are available that can help race growth and thus help reduce the percentage of people living in poverty, despite the severity of Nigerias problems. realiseDuring the period 1960-1997, Nigerias growth rate of per capita GDP of 1.45% compares unfavourably with that reported by former(a) countries, especially those stick on by China and the Asian Tigers such as Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea. Viewed in this comparative perspective, Nigerias per capita income growth has been woefully low and needs to be modify upon. (Iyoha and Oriakhi, 2002). In like manner, Ogujiuba, Oji and Aden uga (2004) wrote that the Nigerian economy has severally been described as a difficult environment for business. With a state growth of closely 3%, it has been acknowledged that the current average output growth rate of less than 4% exit see the country being poorer in the next decade.A watch conducted by Iyoha and Oriakhi (2002) on Nigerias per capita gross national product from 1964 to 1997 shows that it come up steadily from US$120 to US$780 in 1981. Thereafter, it send packing about steadily to US$280 in 1997. Thus, amongst 1964 and 1981, income per capita increased by 550% or at an annual average rate of 32.3% while amongst 1981 and 1997, it fell by 64.1% or at an annual average rate of 4%. It is worth noting that if income per capita had continued to increase beyond 1981 as it did before then, Nigerias GNP per capita would have equaled US$1,279 in 1997. The difference between US$280 and US$1,279, i.e., approximately US$1,000.00, is a rough measure of the cost to the a verage Nigerian of domestic macro frugal policy mistakes and adverse international economic shocks. Likewise, in 1960 agricultural exports accounted for 70.8% of total exports while crude accounted for only 2.6%. Exports of an other(a)(prenominal) commodities like tin and processed goods amounted to 26.6% of total exports. By 1970 agricultural exports only accounted for 33% of total exports while petroleum exports had started to establish dominance by exceeding 58% of total exports. By the time the oil hell dust began in earnest in 1974, petroleum exports accounted for approximately 93% of all exports. The relative fate of agricultural exports in total exports had sh driftk to 5.4% while other products accounted for the remaining 1.9%. Since 1974, with the exception of 1978 when the relative share of petroleum in total exports amounted to 89.1%, petroleums share in exports has consistently exceeded 90%. Indeed, since 1990, the relative share of petroleum in total exports has exc eeded 96%. Agri elaborations contribution has fluctuated between 0.5% and 2.3% while the share of other products has fluctuated between 0.5% and 1.7%. Thus, petroleum exportation has totally dominated the economy and indeed government finances since the mid-1970s.Meanwhile, a puzzling and disturbing tantrum of Nigerias export boom is that the growth it relentd did not seem to be persistent or to have had a significant effect in changing the structure of the economy. For instance, in the 1970s, there was a major increase in measured GDP but the structure of the economy remained basically idempotent (see figure 2 below). This led Professor Yesufu (1995) to describe the Nigerian economy as one that had experienced growth without development.FigureDuring the period of 1970-1985, import substitution industrialization (ISI) strategy was a dominant feature of trade policy in Nigeria. The trade policy was generally inward oriented. on a lower floor this ISI strategy, infant manufactur ing industries were protected using high tariffs, import quotas, and other trade restrictions like import licensing. Non-tariff barriers to trade such as import prohibitions were as well utilized. During this period, trade policy was similarly adjusted in response to the exigencies of the equilibrium of payments. Also, Nigeria was operating a fixed counterchange rate regime under which the cling to of the naira was essentially tied to the U.S. dollar and gold. It is worth noting that the trade policy pursued during this period resulted in a rapid increase in manufacturing action and employment, oddly during the era of the oil boom (1975-1980) and that led to a rise in the share of manufacturing in Gross Domestic growth (GDP) from 5.6% in 1962/63 to 8.7% in 1986. (Iyoha and Oriakhi, 2002).In 1986, Nigeria adopted the Structural allowance account Programme (SAP) of the IMF/World Bank in 1986. With the acceptance of SAP in 1986, there was a radical shift from inward-oriented trade policies to outward-oriented trade policies in Nigeria. These are policies and measures that emphasize production and trade along the lines dictated by a countrys comparative advantage such as export prioring and export diversification, reduction or elimination of import tariffs, and the adoption of market- encounterd transpose rates. Some of the aims of the Structural Adjustment Programme adopted in 1986 were diversification of the structure of exports, diversification of the structure of production, reduction in the over-dependence on imports, and reduction in the overdependence on petroleum exports. The main SAP measures werederegulation of the exchange ratetrade relaxationderegulation of the financial empyreanadoption of appropriate pricing policies especially for petroleum productsrationalization and privatisation of public firmament enterprises andabolition of commodity Marketing Boards.However, as a result of trade liberalization gospel of the SAP, the Nigerian e xternal sector has really grown in leaps and bound. For instance, the total domestic exports of Nigeria in 2006 amounted to 7555141.32 meg as against 6621303.64 million in 2005 showing an increase of 14.10%. Domestic exports preserve negative growth rates in 1993(7.70%), 1994(45.5%), 1997(2.03%), 1998(38.48%), and 2001(27.06%). The largest increase in domestic exports was witnessed in 1995(448.42%). measure imports (c.i.f) stood at 2922248.46 as against 1779601.57 million in 2005 recording an increase of 64.20%. native imports also recorded negative growth rates in 1994(45.72%), 1998(9.41%) and 2004(18.07%). The value of total merchandise trade amounted to 10477389.78 million in 2006 as against 45272.24 recorded in 1987. External trade was dominated by domestic exports between 1987 and 2006 averaging 67.17% while imports (c.i.f) averaged 32.82% (see figure 3 below). Consequently, the trade balance was positive between 1987 and 2006. Oil exports remains the dominant component of export trade in Nigeria between 1987 and 2006 accounting for about 93.33% of total domestic exports. On the other hand, non-oil exports accounted for a small value of 6.67% over the same period. (NBS report, 2008).FigureTherefore, it could be understood that SAP involved the deregulation and liberalization of the Nigerian economy. This policy thrust dovetailed nicely with the emerging international orthodoxy to the effect that deregulation and economic liberalization would yield the optimal allocation of scarce resources, reduce waste, and promote rapid economic growth in developing countries. Unfortunately, there has been no significant progress made in the achievement of these objectives. The economy is appease excessively dependent on petroleum exports while the degree of openness of the economy has increased. The trade openness of the economy has significantly increased in the past three decades, with the trade-GDP ratio rising from 31.54% in 1970, to 46.91% in 1980, 57.23% in 1990, 88.16% in 1995, 85.26% in 2003 and 57.63% in 2007(see figure 4 below). Indeed, in the mid-nineties the ratio of trade to GDP has averaged 70%. This extreme openness of the economy could be disadvantageous in that it makes the country highly susceptible to internationally transmitted business cycles, and, in particular, internationally transmitted shocks (like commodity set collapse). A good example of this effect on the Nigerian economy is that of the global food crisis of 2007 and current global economic/financial crisis.FigureStatement of question ProblemNwafor Manson (undated) noted that the Nigerias trade policy over the years has been determined by one/more of the sideline enquire to protect and stimulate domestic production (import crownwork goods at low prices etc) contract to ameliorate /prevent balance of payment problemsNeed to elevate the value of the NairaNeed to be competitive and enjoy the benefits of opennessNeed to increase revenue andInternational agreem ents.Today, as part of moving with the trend of globalization and trade liberalisation in the global economic system, Nigeria is a member of and a signatory to m both international and regional trade agreements such as International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organisation (WTO), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and so some(prenominal) others. The policy response of such economic partnership on trade has been to remove trade barriers, reduce tariffs, and embark on outward-oriented trade policies. scorn all her effort to meet up with the demands of these economic partnerships in monetary value of opening up her border, according to the 2007 assessment of the Trade Policy Review, Nigerias trade freedom was rated 56% making her the worlds 131st freest economy while the countrys GDP was send 161st in the world in February, 2009.The economy has struggled vigorously to stimulate growth through openness to trade. In fact, it seems that as the country put great effort to boost her economic growth by opening up to trade with the global economy, the more she becomes worse-off relative to her trading partners in equipment casualty of country output growth. Having reviewed the think literatures and considering the structure of the Nigerian economy as relate to trade openness and output growth, we may then enquire the following questionsDoes trade openness have any significant daze on output growth in Nigeria?Is there any other macroeconomic variable that has significant impact on output growth in Nigeria?Is there any linear association (correlation) between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria?Is there long campaign relationship between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria?Has there been any significant structural change in output growth between the pre-SAP and post-SAP period in Nigeria?Objective of the fieldThe bighearted objective of this look into work is to study, in its entirety, the relationship between trade open ness and output growth in Nigeria. This broad objective can be subdivided into the following smaller objectivesTo examine the impact of trade openness on output growth in Nigeria.To identify other immanent and external macroeconomic shocks that determine output growth in Nigeria.To determine the linear association (correlation) between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria.To ascertain the possibility of long run relationship between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria.To determine the possibility of structural changes (if any) in output growth between the pre-SAP and post-SAP period.Statement of Research HypothesisIn view of the foregoing study, with respect to trade openness and output growth in Nigeria, the following null hypotheses leave be testedHo Trade openness does not have any significant impact on output growth in Nigeria.Ho There is no other macroeconomic variable (internal and external) that have significant impact on output growth in Nigeria.Ho There is no linear association (correlation) between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria.Ho There is no long run relationship between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria.Ho There is no significant structural change in output growth between the pre-SAP and post-SAP period.Justification of the StudyNigeria is currently undergoing a series of transformation in every sector of the economy, including the external sector of the economy. The countrys economic policy in the last two decades had one bossy theme which is an integral part of the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) trade liberalization. This policy was espoused on the contrast that it enhances the welfare of consumers and reduces poverty as it offers wider chopine for choice from among wider variety of quality goods and cheaper imports. Today, there are many existing literature on the topical issue of trade openness and growth of which some support the axiom that openness is directly correlated to greater economic g rowth with the main operational implication being that governments should dismantle the barriers to trade. The focal point of this seek work is to identify the short approach shots and benefits of this argument as well as check the validity of this mainstream axiom in Nigeria in the presence of mingled internal and external shocks.Significance of the StudyThe role of international trade in the developmental journey of an economy can not be overemphasized, especially with the current trend of globalization. Nigeria, being part of the global village, is not left out of this world development. This question work is carried out to study how trade openness has influenced the performance of the Nigerian economy through output growth in the presence of other internal and external shocks. The findings of this research work transcend beyond mere academic brainstorming, but will be of immense benefit to federal agencies, policy makers, intellectual researchers and international trade thi nk tanks that occasionally put and suggest policy options to the government on trade related issues. It will also help the government to see the effectiveness of trade liberalization policy on the economic growth of the nation over the years. This research work will further serve as a black market and provide insight for future research on this topic and related field for students who are willing to improve on it. It will also educate the public on various government policies as related to trade issues.Scope and Limitation of the StudyThis research work twosome through the period of 1970-2007 (38 years), and is within the geographical zone of Nigeria. Thus, it is a country-specific research. This research exercise, like every other research work, is really a slopped one that consumes much time and energy especially in the nation of data sourcing, data computation and modeling. The work is relatively limited buttocks on time and financial constraints, data availability, precisi on of data and data range, and methodology adopted which could further be verified by future research. Nevertheless, the researchers have properly organized the research so as to personate dependable results which can aid effective policy making and effectuation at least for the time being.Chapter Summary and ProspectIn this chapter, we have introduced the concept of openness and output growth, the problems this study seeks to address, the targeted objective of the study and the hypotheses this study seeks to verify. We have also explained the justification for and the significance of this study as well as the scope and limitations of this study. In the next chapter, we shall review the related literature, both theoretical and empirical, as well as limitations of the previous studies.CHAPTER TWO writings REVIEW2.1 IntroductionOpenness refers to the degree of dependence of an economy on international trade and financial flows. Trade openness measures the international competitive ness of a country in the global market. Thus, we may talk of trade openness and financial openness. Trade openness is often measured by the ratio of import to GDP or alternatively, the ratio of trade to GDP. It is now generally accepted that increased openness with respect to both trade and capital flows will be expert to a country. Increased openness facilitates greater integration into global markets. Integration and globalisation are beneficial to developing countries although there are also some potential risks. (Iyoha and Oriakhi, 2002). Trade openness is interpreted to include import and export taxes, as well as explicit non-tariff distortions of trade or in varying degrees of wideness to cover such matters as exchange-rate policies, domestic taxes and subsidies, competition and other regulatory policies, education policies, the nature of the legal system, the form of government, and the general nature of institutions and culture (Baldwin, 2002).2.2 Theoretical LiteratureThe issue of whether trade and increased openness would contain to higher rate of economic growth is an age-old question which has sustained debate between pro-traders and protectionists over the years from classicalists like Adam Smith, potty Stuart Mill, to John Maynard Keynes, Raul Prebisch, Hans Singer, Paul Krugman and so on. Theorists from both theses have influenced policy in many countries and at various stage of development. There has also been a huge policy debate about what constitute good and deplorable policies for these countries, especially the developing countries including Nigeria. Should these countries completely open up to international trade? Or should they instead, at least temporarily, protect some or all of their industries from the world market forces? Formal arguments have been developed pro and con of both theses. These arguments were discussed extensively by Maskus (1998) thusArgument One Economies will grow faster if they protect domestic effort from im port competition.This is a general statement of the Infant-Industry Hypothesis, which states that manufacturing sectors in underdeveloped economies must be render from competition in order to have the incentive to invest capital, take heed how to produce goods efficiently, take advantage of scale economies through large-scale production, and develop innovative or distinctive products that can be sold on world markets. The broadest application of the infant-industry argument for isolation from global markets emerged in the general use of import substitution policies in developing countries. A policy of import substitution for industrialization purposes (ISI) involves extensively controlling virtually all components of the economy in order to direct resources into manufacturing. It is an old idea, but its advance(a) origins come from economists writing in the 1950s and 1960s (Arthur Lewis, Raul Prebish, Hans Singer, Gunnar Myrdal, others), who claimed that developing economies fa ce two fundamental problems. First, their status as primary coil-commodity exporters left them vulnerable to world swings in commodity prices (e.g., oil, sugar, tin, copper, etc.) and also that over the long run, commodity prices would right relative to manufacturing prices and costs of new technologies. Second, because developing countries have high population growth rates and abundant labor supplies, it would be difficult to take up workers into primary production. Rather than waiting for comparative advantage to push resources into effortful manufacturing, it would be better to force industrialization through ISI policies. Such programs became common in the 1950s throughout Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, South Asia and southeastward Asia. They are still much in evidence in many countries.Policies imposed in a thorough ISI program include the following.Escalating tariffs, or tariff rates that rise with the stage of processing. Thus, low tariffs on primary goods, mediu m tariffs on industrial inputs and machinery, and high tariffs on final goods, particularly consumer goods such as food products, clothing, cosmetics, automobiles, and so on. Such tariff structures establish very high effective rates of protection for final goods, moment that auto factories and so on were powerfully protected.Considerable taxes on production of primary commodities in order to push labor out of the countryside and into the cities for developing manufacturing. Such taxes include tariffs on trade fertilizers, price ceilings at very low rates for crops, export taxes on farm goods, and so on. For these reasons, ERPs in agriculture were often strongly negative, vastly reducing output and productivity in farming.Fixing exchange rates at expensive levels (i.e., overvaluing the domestic currency), again in order to discourage primary exports and production and also to reduce the cost of imported inputs for manufacturing sectors. Such exchange rates tended to generate large trade deficits, forcing governments to borrow from abroad and build up debt. It also required scope and controlling multiple exchange rates, so that capital and input transactions could take place at cheaper rates than goods imports in order to protect domestic industry.Extensive systems of quotas and licensing for imports and production.Rigorous controls on FDI coming into the country, requiring foreign firms to meet certain performance requirements. Also controls on imported technologies, with governments placing restrictions on costs of applied science and under what terms it would be transferred to local anesthetic firms.Extensive nationalization of industry to establish state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in key sectors, such as petroleum, steel, chemicals, construction, banking, and airlines. These industry champions received government subsidies and were favored in the process of capital allocation, typically being allowed to borrow at very low rates from state banks (usually a t negative real interest rates).To some degree these policies successfully pushed industrialization, but rarely of an efficient kind. Developing countries are full of large manufacturing operations that operate at inefficiently low scales because market sizes are small and product quality is not good enough to penetrate export markets, which is a costly activity. These operations are partly supported by government subsidies, generating vested interests in keeping them going and opposing liberalization. Relative prices of goods are heavily distorted by the various subsidies, trade restrictions, and licenses. Other unintended effects include massive shifts of workers into the cities and worse sanitation and health problems.However, the question is whether such policies have limited growth. manifestly many other factors are at work. What seems clear is that such countries have not performed well in terms of acquiring and improving technologies, have lagged significantly behind in pr oduct innovation and adaptation, have inefficient and distorted agricultural and manufacturing sectors, and have not performed well in edifice human capital, physical capital, and infrastructure. Some relevant figures are given later. Thus, these sources of growth have likely been limited in countries pursuing ISI programs.Argument twain Countries will grow faster if they are open to international competitionThis is the basic hope underlying trade-reform programs that involve extensive liberalization of trade and investment barriers, reduction of controls on technology transfers, unification of tariff rates and domestic tax rates, removal of consumption and production subsidies, and deregulation of industry and privatization of state-owned enterprises. It is the essential philosophy behind World Bank loans to facilitate restructuring and IMF alter packages that require microeconomic structural reforms. It is also a very old idea (going back to Adam Smith and David Ricardo at leas t) but its innovational translation into trade liberalization largely began with the reforms in Chile in the 1970s advocated by the Chicago School of economists (e.g. Milton Friedman, George Stigler).A somewhat different version of this approach is (to contrast it with ISI) called export furtherance, which is the policy followed largely by East Asian and Western countries. These approaches are not necessarily liberal in the sense of free competition. There are many examples of shelter and subsidized domestic firms or industrial groupings much of this protection was designed to encourage infant industries to mature and export. However, the key component of export onward motion programs is not to discourage exports, as is done under ISI programs. The basic policies under export promotion include the following.Properly valued exchange rates, importee exchange rates that do not discriminate between imports and exports. This is gracious either through flexible rates or pegged exchang e rates that are allowed to move gradually to account for inflation differences between the country in question and major export markets. In this sense, the exchange rate did not impose any tax on exports.Remove taxes on export production and, indeed, make the tax and tariff system as neutral as possible across sectors of production. Thus, while in most of these nations agricultural production was protected from import competition, in manufacturing there was relatively little discrimination across types of goods. It is for this reason that export-promotion policies are far nigher to open trade policies than are ISI policies. There were certainly major exceptions to this figure in many export-promotion countries, however.Rather than rely largely on import protection to promote infant industries, some active forms of export promotion in manufacturing and high-tech sectors were taken, including prospering allocation of loans and subsidies and rebates of import tariffs paid on import ed industrial inputs.Recognizing that exporting is harder than cutting off imports because exports require improving levels of quality and considerable foreign marketing costs, East Asian firms have emphasized quality control and access to foreign technologies on favorable terms. Governments have supported this by ensuring strong public educational efforts, investments in infrastructure for exports, and technology transfer policies that attempted to force inward technology flows at cheap prices.Recent problems in some countries (especially Asian countries) presage that while export-promotion strategies may have contributed to growth, they ultimately cause serious problems of overrun (excess capacity) relative to the economys ability to consume commodities. (Maskus, 1998)The World Bank favors lifting the protectionist measures that have locked low-income countries out of rich-country export markets. In fact, most international bodies (WTO, IMF, World Bank etc) strongly support the c ase for trade openness and financial liberalisation when setting up programs for developing countries or when multilateral meetings occur. Some of the arguments put forward in favour of increased openness to trade include the followingSpecialization Gains from specialisation in the good in which the country has a comparative advantage such as productivity gains, lowe

Scope and Legal Status of the EYFs

Scope and Legal Status of the EYFsThe Early Years instruction Frame flex describes the principles, practice and outcomes essential to support and enhance young childrens initiateing from stand to five geezerhood of geezerhood, as well as their novelty to school. The Early Years Framework has a strong emphasis on animate-based eruditeness as play is the best vehicle for young childrens distinguishing providing the most appropriate stimulus for brain planning. The Framework also recognises the brilliance of communication and language and complaisant and emotional development. The four nations that knead up the United Kingdom concur slightly various go or soes to the planning and the saving of the early years education. England has the Early Years initiation Stage which was founded in September 2008. England introduced a statuary curriculum for children ages zero to five years old that ar being educated outside of their homes. This applies to all child-minders as well as after school clubs, preschools, nurseries and schools. The EYFS also incorporates the welfargon requirements, the expression of the education program is the six areas of development Personal, Social and Emotional (PSE), Communication, words and Literacy (C+L), Problem solving, Reasoning and Numeracy (PRN), familiarity and Understanding of the innovation (KUW), fleshly development (PD) and Creative development (CD). At the end of reception year children are assessed by the teacher, this is where the teacher completes an early years profile which consists of thirteen several(predicate) scales that link to the early years learning goals from the area of learning.In Wales they break a Foundation Phase which was established in August 2008, this applies to children sr. three to seven who are in receipt of local permit funding in schools, nurseries, preschools and child-minders. The structure of the education program is slightly unalike to Englands one as they have seven a reas of development. These areas are Personal and social development, Well-being and cultural diversity, Language, literacy and communication skills, numeric development, Welsh language development, Knowledge and understanding of the world, Physical development and Creative development. At the end of the Foundation stage the children are assessed in three areas personal and social development, well-being and cultural diversity, Language, literacy and communication skills in English or welsh and Mathematical development.Scotland go away have a curriculum for excellence still at the moment they are still in the process of introducing it which will be for children aged three to octadeen years. It is part of an overall strategic show up to education. The curriculum includes the totality of experiences which are planned for children and young people done their education, wherever they are being educated. Underpinning the curriculum is the idea that children should be wedded exper iences in order to progress their development and instead of working to their age they will learn according to their own level. in that location are eight areas of experiences and outcomes Technologies, Expressive arts, Health and well-being, Languages, Mathematics, Religious and moral education, Sciences and Social studies. The experiences and outcomes are indite at five levels and young children will be working at the first level known as early years. In auxiliary to the eight areas practioners have a responsibility to embed health and well-being, literacy and numeracy crosswise the learning opportunities provided for children. In 2010 the assessment arrangement were still being wasted up entirely it was expected that setting would have to draw up their own assessments.In Northern Ireland children before they reach statutory school age there are no specific curriculum but erstwhile children are in education they will follow the foundation garment stage. There are six areas of development which are taken through to key stage one and two. These six areas are Language and Literacy, The World Around Us, Mathematics and Numeracy, Personal Development and Mutual Understanding, The Art and Physical Development and Movement.1.2 An accounting of how national and local guidance materials are utilize in settingTo support the implementation of the national frameworks, each land has also developed guidance, information about the statutory elements and training materials. This is statutory guidance from the Department for Education. This means that local authorities must have regard to it when carrying out duties relating to knowledge Difficulty Assessments (LDAs) conducted under section 139A of the schooling and Skills Act 2000. Comments from the organizations below have been considered during drafting of this guidance.The Local Government tie beamHampshire County Council, post 14 learning teamThe young person Peoples Learning forceconnexions Buckinghams hireconnexions MerseysideAssociation of Colleges issue Association of Independent Schools and Non-Maintained Special Schools (NASS)Natspec the Association of National Specialist CollegesDisability Alliance.http//www.education.gov.uk/aboutdfe/statutory/g00203393/ldaThe legislations that this guidance relates to is the Education Act 1996 and sections 139A to 139C of the Learning and Skills Act 2000. This guidance is made for local authorities to serve you them make reliable, effective and robust judgments that may lead to well-informed decisions relating to education and training for children and young people with learning difficulties or disabilities but its not designed to be prescriptive in every individual case. The guidance may also be of interest to children, young people and their families, staff working directly with teenagers and their managers, FE colleges and also other providers including specialist providers, and also the Young Peoples Learning Agency (YPLA) and from Ap ril 2012 the Education Funding Agency (EFA).1.3 An explanation of how different approaches to work with children in early years have affected contemporary provision in the UKReggio genus EmiliaReggio Emilia is an educational approach that is godlike by a group of pre-schools that surround the city that surrounds the area of Reggio Emilia the heart of this approach foc engages on the partnership with parents and children aged between birth to six years old being involved in their learning. There are four main features to this approach which are children need nearly control over their learning, children learn through using all of their senses, learn from and enjoy being with other children and that children need a rich purlieu so they tail learn and express themselves in a repress of ways.High/scopeThe high/scope approach first started in America to help improve outcomes for disadvantaged children. Settings that use this approach will let children plan their own learning they wi ll review it and also report back to the other children. Children are considered to be active learners so play is utilize for model learning, routines are also considered important they pile up stabilityMontessoriThe Montessori approach originated with Maria Montessori who was an Italian doctor who wanted to help improve the outcome for children that had disabilities. The Montessori approach shows the practitioner as an observer of the children who can support their learning by making appropriate interventions. The term play is the heart of Montessori resources and equipment has specific learning objects and also provides children with challenge.SteinerThe Steiner approach origins in the work of a philosopher named Rudolf Steiner that founded a school after the First World War. Steiners approach emphasises the importance of fostering childrens creativity and imagination. Manufactured toys are not used as they are thought to inhibit childrens curiosity. Formal reading and make-up will not start until children are seven years old.3.1 An explanation of partnership model of working with carersMany years ago once parents or carers had handed over their children to nursery, school or preschool they were considered to be sensibly surplus to requirements and it was known as practitioners knew best. Today it is understood that the best outcomes for children are when practioners and parents work together. The idea is while practioners and parents have different rolls within a childs life they can come together to share ideas, information and thoughts about the best way forward for the child or young person. Settings use ways to make partnerships with parents or carers. An open door policy allows parents or carers to visit the setting and they are welcome at any eon without needing an appointment. The assessments we do on children used to be top secret but now we share these with the parents and carers and get them to contribute to them. This is because children act differently with parents than they do when they are with their practioners. In many setting not only do they share planning with the parents they also encourage parents and carers to contribute towards them with their own ideas and comments, much(prenominal) as the lay out of the learning environment. Many setting do invite the parents to come in and work alongside them such as drop in sessions or open mornings and helping out on school outings. Parents will be informed of the current activities that they are doing in school so these can be continued at home.

Terrorist Attack In Mumbai History Essay

Terrorist Attack In Mumbai History EssayMUMBAI, India Indian forest squeeze out fighters took manoeuver of the Taj Mahal palace Tower, the last nest of terrorist resistance, on Saturday morning, after a lengthy round that left three terrorists dead and sections of the hotel in flames, the head of the commando social unit verbalise in a televised news collection.Soldiers were still combing the hotel, deviation room to room in search of re of importing gunmen, but the siege appe bed finally to cede ended, J. K. Dutt, director general of the reckon Security Guard, an elite group commando force, give tongue to in the news conference at 9 a.m. Firefighters were permitted to begin pouring water over the flames that had burned out of picture in the hotels lower floors for as much as an hour art object the commandos battled the terrorists.It was the triplet day of a siege that has shaken India, raised tensions with live Pakistan and prompted questions about the failure of the authorities to anticipate the tragedy or to reply swiftly enough as it unfolded.All told, after bangers were cle bed from a second hotel and a Jewish center on Friday, more than cl wad had died. Most of the dead were app arently Indian citizens, but at least 22 foreigners were killed. Among the dead reported were a rabbi from Brooklyn and his wife, who ran the Jewish center.The main success for the authorities on Friday came at the second hotel, the Oberoi. The authorities said that two gunmen had been killed and 93 foreigners some of them wearing Air France and Lufthansa uniforms had been rescued, though 30 bodies were found. Survivors offered harrowing accounts of their ordeal, trapped on the upper floors of the high- establish hotel while gunmen prowled below. The National Security Guard said it recovered two AK-47s, a 9-millimeter side arm and some grenades.For the first time, after several veiled accusations that Pakistan was convolute, Indian officials specifically l inked the attacks to their neighbor and longtime nemesis. Indias foreign minister blamed elements in Pakistan for the attacks , spreading the repercussions of the attacks beyond Indias borders. American intelligence and counterterrorism officials said Friday that there was rise evidence that a Pakistani militant group Lashkar-e-Taiba, which has long been involved in the conflict with India over the repugn territory of Kashmir was responsible.Indian commandos said the attackers at the hotels were well trained, with sensation carrying a backpack packed with hundreds of rounds of ammunition, and they seemed to discern the buildings layout better than the security forces, indicating a high degree of preparation. Some were seen arriving by boat former(a)wises may have been guests at the hotels for days.The leader of a commando unit involved in a gun battle on Thursday morning inside the Taj said during a news conference on Friday that he had seen a dozen dead bodies in i of the rooms.His team found a gunmans backpack, which contained dried fruit, 400 rounds of AK-47 ammunition, four grenades, Indian and American money, and seven credit cards from some of the worlds leading banks, he said. The pack alike had a national identity card from the island of Mauritius.The attackers were real, very familiar with the layout of the hotel, said the commander, who disguised his face with a scarf and tinted glaze to hide his identity. He said the militants, who appeared to be under 30 long time old, were determined and remorseless. epitomeThe terrorist attack on Saturday morning is one of the study(ip) activity which has led terrorist most dangerous for our country.A team of terrorist attacked the TAJ HOTEL and killed mevery a(prenominal) innocent visitors. The fight betwixt commandos and terrorist went for two days.India a safe phaeton destination Minister2010-09-20 141000New Delhi, Sep 20 (IANS) India is a safe destination and the security of tourists is of ut most importance to the government, tourism Minister Kumari Selja said here Monday as Britain and Australia issued travel advisories asking their nationals to be vigilant.The advisories came a day after two Taiwanese were injured when a two armed men on a motorcycle exposed indiscriminate fire outside the historic Jama Masjid here Sunday. objurgate the attack, Selja said This attack on tourists shows the desperation of those elements who deprivation to create panic in the society by attacking innocent people.She appealed to the tourists and the tourism frat not to panic by such stray incidents as India is a safe destination and safety and security of tourists is utmost concern of the government. study agencies are at work to bring the culprits to book, she said in a statement issued here.The attack on Taiwanese came just two weeks ahead the Commonwealth Games which start Oct 3. A high alert was issued by the jurisprudence in the national capital Sunday and security was tightene d.The British senior high school Commission here, in its advisory, said There is a high threat from terrorism throughout India. Terrorists have targeted places in the past which Westerners are cognise to visit, including public places such as restaurants, hotels, railway stations, markets and places of worship.Australias Department of Foreign personal matters (DFAT) updated its travel advice following Sundays attack, saying there is a high adventure of a terrorist attack in New Delhi, ABC.net.au reported.Some 7,000 athletes and delegates from 71 countries and territories are expected for the Oct 3-14 Commonwealth Games, Indias biggest sporting event after the 1982 Asian Games.ANALYSISGovernment is taking many steps to push down terrorism from India.Govt. has change magnitude the security on its boundaries . It is as well as taking many steps to die over commonwealth games to make it peaceful and fully palliate of terrorism. rubbish Terrorism in IndiaBy Maj. Gen. Kulwant Sing h (Retd.) and Dr. David LefflerTerrorism is not an easy fuss to solve. India has been fighting terrorism for over half a century. Since license in 1947, the eastern states have been under the spell of insurgents, abetted by foreign countries. The disputed region of Kashmir is a powder keg, threatening to explode into conventional and peradventure nuclear contend any day. A vi able-bodied solution may lie in Indias past-ancient Vedic knowledge that was scientifically validated in the 20th century. Now, in the 21st century, Indias ancient method of preventive defense, a form of defense called invincible, promises to end terrorism and conflict and set an workout for the rest of the world. Is India put up to revive its illustrious past?India has fought four major wars over the problem of the disputed POK (Pakistan Occupied Kashmir). Pakistan is unlikely to be able to win a conventional war over against India. For this reason, Pakistan has allegedly resorted to sending terrorists into Kashmir, commerce them emancipation fighters. This holds true throughout the world one sides terrorist is another sides freedom fighter. Globally, the impact of terrorism has been increasing since stem formed alliances with existing terrorist organizations. The rise of tensions and the looming threat of nuclear war between India and Pakistan has triggered a mass hegira of foreign nationals from India as well as Pakistan.Like many other countries, India has fought terrorism through a dynamic approach, i.e., with artillery unitry and military personnel. despite its long-term military experience fighting terrorists, India is still losing the war. Terrorists continue to add-on in number. Adding to the fray of foreign-based terrorists, new organizations are emerging, like the Peoples War crowd (PWG). The number of such organizations and cadres who have joined them is alarming. Even with fully fit out police and para-military forces, India will not be able to completely contr ol them. Even more alarming, defence experts predict that it is just a matter of time before terrorists attack with weapons of mass destruction which may be handheld and easy to transport and conceal.Tensions between India and Pakistan rise and fall, and frequently, both are poised for war. If war starts, Indias strategy, as announced so far, is for a limited offensive to stop terrorism. The term limited offensive itself is misleading, as it cannot be quantified. Does it imply limiting effort in the employment of forces, the areas of offensive, use of weapon systems and so on? In any case, Indias leaders may want it to be limited, but this cannot dictated to its opponents. In all probability, once war starts, it will not be limited. Can India eliminate terrorism by deploying military forces, as it has for the last 50 old age? Again and again, account statement shows that the answer is no. Terrorism is a man problem. Therefore, it requires a kind-hearted solution. The underlying cause of terrorism, war, conflict as well as other types of social violence, is accumulated social stress. If the collective social stress madcap terrorism could be prevented, such negative problems would cease. Thus, no collective stress-no terrorism, and no war.A silent approach to achieve this prevention ideal is exposit in the Vedic literature. Heyam duhkham anagatam (Yog-Sutra, 2.16) Avert the danger before it arises. The Yog-Sutra, 2.35 also affirms create from raw stuff sannidhau vairatyagah In the vicinity of Yogic influence-unifying influence, integrating influence, coherent and harmonious influence-conflicting tendencies do not arise. These ancient principles applied in the past, and they apply today. fit in to Vedic tradition, conflict resulted from ignorance-ignorance of how to prevent the build-up of collective stress. For example, the Ramayana stated that ignorance will have no access within eight miles from the Yogis hermitage. The Ramayana also described the anc ient urban center of Ayodhya. Ayodhya means the city none can challenge in warfare. Certainly, Ayodhya relied on the conventional defence technologies of its time. For instance, It was enclosed by strong fortifications and a dark moat, which no enemy, by any expedient whatsoever, could penetrate. Also, Ayodhya abounded in warriors undefeated in battle, fearless and skilled in the use of arms, resembling lions guarding their mountain caves. However, the descriptions of the enlightened, stress-free life of the inhabitants of Ayodhya may indicate that its first line of defense was the citys freedom from collective stress. According to the Ramayana, this low stress level, based on life in congruity with Natural Law, made Ayodhya worthyy of its name. Could this ideal of preventive defence again be accomplished in India? Vedic scholar and physicist Maharishi Mahesh Yogi revived the virtual(a) components of the silent approach of Invincible Defence engine room-he calls them the Trans cendental Meditation (TM) and TM-Sidhi program. These human resource-based technologies need not require or involve religious feel and practices. These meditation techniques have been practiced by members of many faiths worldwide. Extensive scientific research documents the ability of the TM and TM-Sidhi program to dissolve stress on the individual and collective levels. India could use this nourishing and non-destructive Invincible Defence Technology to reduce tensions, thereby preventing conflicting tendencies that drive terrorismANALYSISSince independence India is fighting against terrorism . And even it has got many success Mostly regions are well awared of this threat and it is reducing slowly from this world. Within few years it will be free from this threat kinfolk 11 attacksFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to navigation, search9/11 redirects here. For the date, see folk 11 or 9 November. For other uses, see 911 (disambiguation).September 11 attacks.LocationNew Yor k City Arlington County, Virginia and near Shanksville, Pennsylvania.DateTuesday, September 11, 2001846 am (2001-09-11T0846) 1028 am (2001-09-11T1029) (UTC-4)Attack typeAircraft hijacking, mass murder, suicide attack, terrorismDeath(s)Nearly 3,000 victims and 19 hijackersInjured6,000+Belligerent(s) understructure led by Osama bin Laden1(see also Responsibility and Hijackers)The September 11 attacks (often referred to as September 11th or 9/11) were a series of coordinated suicide attacks by al-Qaeda upon the coupled States on September 11, 2001. On that morning, 19 al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four commercial passenger cat valium airliners.12 The hijackers intentionally crashed two of the airliners into the Twin Towers of the World share midpoint in New York City, killing everyone on board and many others working in the buildings. Both buildings collapsed within two hours, destroying nearby buildings and damaging others. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C. The fourth plane crashed into a arena near Shanksville in rural Pennsylvania after some of its passengers and flight of stairs crew attempted to retake control of the plane, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washington, D.C. There were no survivors from any of the flights.Nearly 3,000 victims and the 19 hijackers died in the attacks.3 According to the New York State wellness Department, 836 responders, including firefighters and police personnel, have died as of June 2009.3 Among the 2,752 victims who died in the attacks on the World Trade Center were 343 firefighters and 60 police officers from New York City and the Port Authority.4 184 people were killed in the attacks on the Pentagon.5 The overwhelming majority of casualties were civilians, including nationals of over 70 countries.6 In addition, there was at least one secondary death one person was ruled by a medical examiner to have died from lung disease due to e xposure to dust from the World Trade Centers collapse.7The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror it invaded Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, who had harbored al-Qaeda terrorists. The United States also enacted the USA PATRIOT Act. Many other countries also strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded law enforcement powers. Some American air exchanges stayed closed for the rest of the week following the attack and posted immense losses upon reopening, especially in the airline and insurance industries. The destruction of billions of dollars worth of office space caused serious deadening to the economy of Lower Manhattan.The damage to the Pentagon was cleared and repaired within a year, and the Pentagon narrative was built adjacent to the building. The rebuild process has started on the World Trade Center site. In 2006, a new office tower was completed on the site of 7 World Trade Center. The new 1 World Trade Center is currently un der construction at the site and, at 1,776 ft (541 m) upon completion in 2013, it will become one of the tallest buildings in marriage America. Three more towers were originally expected to be built between 2007 and 2012 on the site. Ground was broken for the Flight 93 National Memorial on November 8, 2009, and the first phase of construction is expected to be ready for the 10th anniversary of the attacks on September 11, 2011.8Map showing the attacks on the World Trade Center.The World Trade Center Towers on fire and the collapse of the South TowerANALYSISThis is one of the major attack of terrorist in the world .After this attack United states has taken major attacks against rerroristAsia Briefing N109, 6 September 2010The Indonesian government could reduce the circulation of illegal firearms by improving procedures for guarding and monitoring police and military armouries, conducting firm audits of gun importers and enforcing controls over the airsoft industry.ANALYSISEven the foreign countries are also affected by this threat.

Hayakawa Ch. 10 :: essays research papers

Hayakawa Chapter 10Giving Things NamesoA differentiation set itself up, and, abstracting the common characteristics.oThe question what is it really? Or what is its right name? are nonsense questions.oThings can barely have right names only if there is a needful connection between symbols and things being symbolized.oWhat we call things and where we draw the creese between one class of things and another depends upon the interests we have and the purpose of the classification.oEach is useful for its purpose.oIf our culture upbringing was different, the world would tonicity different to us.oAlso, many great deal cant stigmatize between like things. For example salmon, perch, pickerel, etc. They just call them fish.oWhen we name something we are classifying.oThe individual object or resultant we are naming has no name and belongs to no class until we deposit it in one. oThe extensional meaning of a word determines a prior existence.oIn matters of race and nationality, in the wa y in which classifications work is especially apparent.oThe effect that each classification has upon what he may or many not do constitutes their reality.oIt would be exactly as justifiable to say that any person with up to now a small amount of white blood is white. Because the power system of classification suits the convenience of those making the classification.oClassification isnt a matter of identifying essences but it is simply a reflection of affectionate convenience or necessity. oAs soon as the do work of classification is completed, our attitudes and our conduct are determined.The Blocked Mindo flicker judgments suggests that such errors can be avoided by thinking more slowly this isnt the case, for some people think very slowly with no better results. oWhat we are concerned with is the way in which we button up the development of our own minds by automatic reactions. oSome people may say, A Jew is a Jew and theres no acquire around that.oThey have an extensional Je w with the fictitious Jew inside their heads. oThe fictitious Jew inside their heads remains unchanged in spite of their experiences.oSome people ignore the characteristics left out in the abut of classification.Cow 1 Is Not Cow 2o lots all statements in ordinary conversation, debate, and public controversy taking the variety Republicans are Republicans are not true. oAn example is business is business. The inaugural business invokes denotes the transaction under discussion and the 2nd invokes the connotations of the word.oThe call of the classification tell us what the individuals in that class have in common.